Ruben Guizar
Philosophy
Over the last decade, the advent of cloning and
advancements in human genetic research have presented
society with a complicated moral quandary. Debate rages as
to what constitutes legitimate paths of inquiry and where
to draw the line as to research that strikes many people as
morally wrong. The basic question is: "how does society
determine what's right?" While, of course, questions
regarding human genetic research are new, this basic
question is as hold as civilization and has been addressed
over and over again by history's great philosophers. One of
the most notable philosophers of the modern era is Immanuel
Kant, who was born in Prussia in 1724. Kant paid a great
deal of attention to formulating a complex system of
morality. The following examines Kantian morals and
how they might be applied to questions of human genetic
research.
Kant's moral theory is predicated on the idea of the
"categorical imperative," which Kant described in the
following manner, "Act only on that maxim which you can at
the same time will to be a universal law"(Honderich, 1995,
p. 436). By the term "maxim," Kant meant general rules or
principles upon which rational individuals act, and that
these principles reflect the end that an individual has in
mind in choosing actions of a certain type in given
circumstances (Honderich, 1995). Therefore, maxims are
principles in the following form: "When in an S-type
situation, act in an A-type manner in order to attain end-
E" (Honderich, 1995, p. 436). For example, a person might
resolve to pay a bill as soon as it is received in order to
not incur any debt. Kant tested a maxim by performing a
thought experiment in which the individual asks oneself
whether or not one would will a certain maxim to become
universal law. As this suggests, moral law, in the
philosophy of Kant, is inherent in reason itself. It is a
priori, before experience (Frost, 1962). In every
circumstance, Kant believed that "categorical imperative"
provides a sure criterion for how to evaluate right and
wrong (Frost, 1962). Kant maintained that an action that
the individual can easily will that everyone should follow
and perform would necessarily have to be a good act
(Frost, 1962).
Morality for Kant not only involved law (categorical
imperative) but also the ultimate end to which action is
directed. As the formulation of the concept of categorical
imperative suggests, the basic problem for Kant was to
discern the meaning of "right and wrong, good and bad"
(Frost, 1962, p. 94). Fundamental to Kant's thinking was
the principle formulated by Rousseau that the only
fundamentally good thing in the universe is the "human will
governed by respect for the moral law or the
consciousness of duty" (Frost, 1962, p. 94). He considered
a moral act to be one that is performed out of respect for
moral law, rather than for selfish gain or sympathy for
others (Frost, 1962).
Therefore, unlike other moral systems, Kant did not
see consequences as the criteria for determining the moral
value of a specific action. Rather, Kant looked toward the
intentions of the individual. If an individual acts from
good intentions, out of respect for moral law, his
actions, are by definition, "good." Kant argued that
individuals instinctively avoid behavior, which, if
performed by everyone, would create anarchy. "We know, not
by reasoning, but by vivid and immediate feelings, that
we must avoid behavior which, if adopted by all men, would
render social life impossible" (Durant, 1961, p. 209).
As this brief summary of Kantian ethics suggests, if
Kant were presented with the problem of the morality of
genetic research, he would, first of all, be concerned
about the motivations of the researchers, their intentions
in conducting such research (Frost, 1962).
In the furor that was quickly generated over the
successfully cloning of a sheep, "Dolly," the usefulness of
cloning technology to current medical practice was pushed
aside. Nevertheless, the applications are considerable. A
great deal of technical information has been left out in
the sensationalism that abounded in the media. For one
thing, the media did not make it clear that "Dolly" was not
an identical clone (Wilson,1997). Part of everyone's
genetic material comes from the mitochondria in the
cytoplasm of the egg. In the case of Dolly, only the
nuclear DNA was transferred (Wilson, 1997). This may have
significant information to import to scientists concerning
the aging process since aging is related to acquired
mutations in mitochondrial DNA (Wilson, 1997, p. 913).
Furthermore, as Dolly ages, it has been noted that she is
aging prematurely, which provides another source of
information for scientists, but also signals that this
technology is far from perfected.
Research conducted on nuclear transfer into human
eggs has the possibility of providing an immense amount of
information that may have clinical value, by providing a
model for learning more about somatic cell differentiation
(Wilson, 1997, p. 913). Eventually, in due course,
scientists may learn how to influence cell differentiation
and this could give rise to targeted cell types (Wilson,
1997). The ability to generate tissues from different cell
types could have enormous implications for transplantation.
Wilson (1997) anticipates this technology utilizing skin
and blood cells, and possibly even neuronal tissue that
could then be used in the treatment of "injury, transplants
for leukemia, and for degenerative disease such as
Parkinson's disease" (p. 913).
In another area of research, the successful cloning
of human growth hormone (HGH) is important for several
reasons. First of all, a child that has pituitary dwarfism
requires twice-weekly injections until reaching age of 20.
In the past, HGH was could only be obtained by removal of
human pituitary tissue at autopsy. To treat one child with
pituitary dwarfism using previous methods required
obtaining over a thousand pituitaries (Emery and Malcolm,
1995, p. 165). Not only has it been difficult
in the past to produce enough HGH to successfully provide
treatment to all the children who needed it, but small
amounts of contaminating virus caused some of the children
treated to develop Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (Emery and
Malcolm, 1995, p. 165). Cloning technology, which permits
HGH to be produced artificially, has provided a readily
available supply of HGH, which-in turn-has
allowed the application of HGH in other treatments. For
example, it has been discovered that HGH can be used to
speed up the healing process for bone fractures (Emery
and Malcolm, 1995). This is been particularly beneficial in
treating the elderly (Emery and Malcolm, 1995).
As this brief summary of scientific research being
conducted into cloning and genetic research indicates,
there are enormous benefits to be reaped from this new and
controversial technology. Kant would undoubtedly
approve of research that so obvious benefits humanity and
society. What people seem to fear, and what would
undoubtedly be wrong by any moral system, are nightmare
scenarios propagated by the media and Hollywood.
Images of clones being used simply as "spare parts" to
extend the life of the rich, for example, has been
dramatized in film. This sort of misuse of technology would
constitute a threat to the social system and, therefore,
would not pass Kant's categorical imperative test. In other
words, if everyone were cloned, it would significantly
lower the way that human life is valued in our society.
Also, the idea of human embryos being created and destroyed
simply to further genetic research objectives is simply
abhorrent on an instinctive level. Therefore, while it!
can be seen that this technology needs to be carefully
controlled and supervised in regards to moral issues, it
should not be totally banned either, as it also has the
power to benefit society to a great degree.